Table 2 Summary of characteristics of included studies (N = 204)^a

Study design

 Cluster randomized trial

96 (47%)

22,356

310,101

 Randomized controlled trial

51 (25%)

6499

5831

 Non-randomized controlled trial

38 (19%)

5193

7954

 Non-randomized cluster-controlled trial

13 (6%)

878

7645

 Stepped-wedge cluster-randomized trial

5 (2%)

1618

8054

 Controlled time series study

1 (1%)

NR

735

Study setting

 Hospital (inpatient or emergency department)

139 (68%)

25,884

82,237

 Primary care or general practice

25 (12%)

1607

160,869

 Nursing home

21 (10%)

2247

19,096

 Community health center

7 (3%)

507

2896

 Homecare

6 (3%)

1260

1599

 Hospital (outpatient)

3 (1%)

465

3502

 Public health unit

2 (1%)

95

62,168

 Skilled nursing facility

2 (1%)

4479

7953

Country income status

 High income

159 (78%)

33,047

323,382

 Upper-middle income

37 (18%)

2894

16,938

 Lower-middle income

7 (3%)

498

NR

 Low income

1 (1%)

105

NR

Target clinical behavior

 Multiple

47 (23%)

7744

100,810

 Providing counseling and advice

29 (14%)

2892

4372

 Practicing infection prevention and control measures (e.g., hand hygiene)

26 (13%)

4824

5551

 Assessing and diagnosing illness

26 (13%)

9133

11,865

 Administering medication

14 (7%)

2236

15,496

 Documenting

10 (5%)

541

1266

 Coordinating care

10 (5%)

1226

1016

 Testing and screening

8 (4%)

482

57,683

 Managing physical restraints

8 (4%)

2011

12,415

 Managing symptoms

8 (4%)

338

2721

 Managing care equipment

8 (4%)

504

19,362

 Prescribing

3 (1%)

38

96,741

 Vaccinating

3 (1%)

4479

9617

 Reporting incidents

2 (1%)

NR

1405

 Other

2 (1%)

96

NR